The Attempted Kingdom of Finland

The story of the short-lived, largely nominal, Kingdom of Finland goes back to 1809. It was then, during the Napoleonic Wars, that the Grand Principality of Finland, whose Grand Prince (Grand Duke) had previously been the King of Sweden, was taken by Russia. For the next century Finland was an autonomous region of the Russian Empire and, at first, relations between Finland and Russia were quite good and beneficial to both sides. The Finns demonstrated their loyalty to the Russian Tsar and, in return, Finland was granted a greater degree of independence than other areas. Finland was given its own government and there was something of a national revival. However, later efforts to enforce greater uniformity, integrate Finns into the Russian Imperial Army and bring Finland into line with the rest of the Russian Empire caused some discontent. Still, the problems were not too serious and Finland remained a part of the Russian Empire until the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II. Many, having considered Finland to have been in what amounted to a personal union with the Russian emperor, now felt Finland was completely independent. However, the Russian Provisional Government continued to view Finland as a part of Russia and soon the divisions in Russia swept over Finland as well. When civil war broke out in Russia between the Red and White factions, Finland declared independence but the conflict soon spread to Finland as well.

Finnish White Guards

At the start, the ever-troublesome Social Democrats held the most seats in the Finnish parliament. Soon the Finns were divided between the socialists who wanted to stay close to the emerging Soviet Russia and the various non-socialists who wanted complete independence. Red and White Finns were soon battling in their own country, along with, at times, their Russian counterparts. Faced with the threat of Finland being swallowed up by the emerging socialist dictatorship in Russia, some began to turn for help to their former enemies in Imperial Germany. 1917 and 1918 were busy years for the Baltic region. The Germans still had considerable military force in the area and were able to lend support to the White Finns against the Reds. The Reds were also undercut by the loss of Soviet support as the Russian Reds withdrew to concentrate on their own civil war. Germany saw an opportunity to support an independent Finland and so secure their own influence in the region, saving it from socialist republicanism and also serving as a convenient buffer state between the Soviets and the weakening German Empire. The Germans were also acting in a similar fashion in the Baltic states, helping establish independent monarchies (the Kingdom of Lithuania and United Baltic Duchy) under German princes.

Prince Friedrich Karl

It was only natural that Germany would have considerable influence on the newly independent Finland. Later, during World War II, the Finns would say that Germany was “the only ally left to us” and in those closing days of World War I, the Germans were simply the only ones to extend a hand and give real support to the forces of Finnish independence. They trained White Finnish military forces, supported them with supplies and war materials and even troops to help them see the Russians out of their country and defeat the Red faction. Had it not been for German assistance, Finland might never have been independent at all but become another member state of the U.S.S.R. from the beginning. Given that, it was not unexpected that Finland would become a monarchy and choose for the throne a German royal. The favorite candidate was Prince Friedrich Karl von Hesse-Kassel, officially Friedrich Karl Prinz und Landgraf von Hessen-Kassel. He was married to Princess Margarete of Prussia, the sister of German Kaiser Wilhelm II. One Finnish member of parliament suggested that the new potential monarch reign as “King Charles I of Finland and Karelia, Duke of Aland, Grand Duke of Lapland, Lord of Kaleva and the North”. With the Social Democrats dealt with, on October 9, 1918 the Hessian prince was formally elected King of Finland.

Crown of Finland

Naysayer republicans tend to portray this as effectively a German takeover of Finland or that, rather than being independent, Finland was simply becoming a German protectorate. However, that is not the case and the choice of the Hessian Prince Friedrich Karl was actually a very smart move for the new country. Because the King would be a German, the Germans could be confident enough to let Finland govern itself without worrying that Finland would ever be a threat to their interests. Had Finland chosen a leader who was hostile or even seen as being hostile to Germany, the country would immediately lose their primary foreign ally and, had things gone different on the warfront, Finland might have been occupied and annexed outright. However, as it was, Germany could be comfortable with an independent, self-governing Finland knowing that the monarch was bound by family ties to their own Kaiser and, as a result, Finland could count on German support in international disputes that were bound to arise with neighboring countries like Russia or Sweden. It was also a case of being realistic. Finland, like the Baltic states, knew they were in a vulnerable position between Germany and Russia. They could never oppose both and so would have to take the side of one or the other. Especially with the Bolsheviks taking power in Russia and even then massacring people, this was an easy choice. A simple look at who was chosen as regent of the new kingdom, the famous Finnish soldier Carl Gustaf Mannerheim, will show that there is no doubt about the commitment to independence on the part of the Kingdom of Finland.

Mannerheim, in fact, had been chosen as regent in spite of the fact that he had been less than enthusiastic about offering the throne to Prince Friedrich Karl specifically because of the reaction this would provoke among the Allies. Unfortunately, he was proven correct and with the defeat of Germany the cause of monarchy in Finland was instantly doomed, even before the nominal King had been able to take up his throne. The Allies made it clear that they did not approve of the Hessian Prince becoming King of Finland and the Finnish Prime Minister, Lauri Ingman (a monarchist), was obliged to request that Prince Friedrich Karl renounce the throne. If he did not, Finland feared that the Allies would not recognize their independence. So, on December 14, 1918 Prince Friedrich Karl formally gave up the Finnish throne, before he had ever even actually taken up the position, and in the subsequent parliamentary elections in Finland the republicans won the majority of seats. When the new constitution was voted on and enacted it was, of course, a republican constitution and Finland has remained a republic ever since.

MM Video: Royal Finland and the Winter War

Soldier of Monarchy: Carl Gustaf Mannerheim

If there is any one man who could be called the “father” of modern Finland it is Carl Gustaf Mannerheim. Born in 1867 to noble Swedish-Finnish family that had lost its fortune, Mannerheim grew up as an impetuous and somewhat rebellious youth. Discipline problems scratched his plans to join the local Finnish army and so he opted for the Imperial Russian Army (Finland being, at the time, a Grand Duchy in the Russian Empire). He married but later separated from his wife and seemed to have little prospect of advancement until the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War. Volunteering for service in the Far East Mannerheim proved his skill and courage quickly and was promoted to colonel for his actions at the battle of Mukden in Manchuria. After attending the last meeting of the Finnish Diet he was sent on a secret intelligence gathering mission through Turkestan to Peking. The “Great Game” between Russia and Britain was still lingering on and the Russian high command wanted to know what the prospects of a Russian invasion of western China would be and how much the Qing Imperial Army had modernized.

Mannerheim undertook the mission with considerable zeal, carrying on even after setbacks that would have discouraged most others. He reported on the attitudes of the ethnic minorities toward the Han Chinese, noted the anger in Inner Mongolia over Han encroachment and met with the “Great Thirteenth” Dalai Lama of Tibet. After reaching Peking and reporting on military, social and educational advancements that were underway as well as the increasing interest of Japan in the region after which he returned home via the Trans-Siberian railway. Resuming his military duties he was posted to Poland and then to the court of Tsar Nicholas II. When World War I broke out he again gave valuable and gallant service to the Russian Empire during the campaigns in Hungary and Romania. For his service he earned the Cross of St George, of which he was justly proud, and promoted to command a cavalry division.

However, for Mannerheim as with many others, the outbreak of the Russian Revolution changed the course of his life forever. Disgusted by the Bolsheviks he was determined to fight them to the last and was part of the “White Russian” opposition. However, he was also torn by his nationalist desire to see his beloved Finland independent and his loyalty to the Tsar whom he had so faithfully served. That little dilemma took care of itself when the Romanov dynasty was overthrown and the choice of an independent Finland or a communist-dominated one was easy for Mannerheim to make. Returning to his homeland he organized White forces to beat back the Bolshevik onslaught while Finnish patriots organized an independent government. Aside from the communists, who were always a minority among the Finns, there was division between those who favored a republic and those who favored a monarchy. The German Empire was supportive of the Finns and the choice of a German prince as King of Finland would ensure German favor while the western Allies would oppose such a move.

Mannerheim was a military man from the start, not a politician, and there has been some debate as to which side; the republicans or the monarchists, that he truly favored. For most it should be clear that Mannerheim favored a monarchy but I shall let Mannerheim speak for himself. As commander of the Finnish White Guards he said, “The army considers it their duty to openly state their wish that there will be guarantees to avoid the recurrence of those conditions (conditions leading to the Civil War), by creating a form of society and government that will forever protect us from a similar period of terror that our country has just escaped. The army regards as the only guarantee that the navigation of the state ship of Finland is entrusted in firm hands, which cannot be touched by party disputes and need not submit to compromises, sell power at bargain prices.” It certainly sounds as though a monarchy was what Mannerheim considered ideal.

However, as Germany was crumbling away in defeat toward the end of 1918 the monarchist position gave way as everyone knew the Allies would be against such a thing considering that it was a German prince, Frederick Charles of Hesse-Kassel (the Kaiser’s brother-in-law no less) who had been chosen to be King of Finland. Some in the army and White Guards especially wanted to make the hero Mannerheim King but nothing ever came of that idea though he did maintain order as regent until a government, now republican, could be organized. He obtained recognition of Finnish independence from Great Britain and America and organized food relief to be sent in to avoid starvation. The United States would later gratefully point to Finland as the only country to repay the war debts to America on time. When a government was organized Mannerheim stepped aside though he was already being attacked by liberals (socialists) for his staunch opposition to the communists. Mannerheim himself was less than impressed with the government, holding a rather low opinion of all politicians as creatures who stirred up divisions amongst the populace simply to further their own careers and increase their own power. Imagine that.

Mannerheim knew that Finland was not in the clear yet. His experience fighting the Bolsheviks gave him a clear understanding of their goals and he knew that, no matter how much they despised Imperial Russia, they would do all in their power to retain and retake every inch of what had formerly been the Tsar’s empire. As usual, Mannerheim was right and soon the new Union of Soviet Socialist Republics had annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania after luring them to a conference to discuss political issues. He continued to support the conservatives in Finland but he spurned the suggestion of some on the radical right that he become dictator. Nonetheless, Finland was soon forced to turn to him for help in their greatest crisis since becoming independent. In 1939 the USSR summoned Finland to a conference just as they had the Baltic states and made extensive territorial demands. The Finns refused to surrender their territory and Mannerheim returned to duty as Field Marshal of the Finnish army to face the threat of a Soviet invasion.

It was a seemingly impossible task that faced the battle-hardened aristocrat but he went to work with care and vigor. Plans were drawn up to protect the populace, preparations were made for land, sea and air attacks and defenses were erected including a fortified line across the Karelian isthmus known as the Mannerheim Line. When the Red Army invaded the Soviets claimed they were only defending themselves (which became quite a joke in the international community) and commissars told the Russian soldiers that the oppressed Finns would welcome them with open arms. To say that Moscow, and the world, were stunned by what happened next would be an understatement. The over-confident communists walked into a firestorm of fierce Finnish resistance. Using hit-and-run tactics, concealed fortifications, ambushes and their knowledge of the terrain the Finns decimated the Soviet Red Army. Again and again the communists walked into Finnish traps, their situation not being helped by the fact that many of their troops were raw conscripts and their officer corps had recently been thinned of talented leaders by a massive military purge carried out by Joseph Stalin.

Mannerheim, it seemed, had thought of everything and though pushed to the breaking point his clever tactics and tenacious soldiers inflicted ruinous losses on the enemy. Yet, they knew they could not hold out forever against the Soviet hordes and, aside from some brave volunteers from Sweden and Norway and the like, no help was forthcoming for Finland. Adolf Hitler did offer to send a considerable number of expert German troops to help but Marshal Mannerheim rejected the offer. Naturally he did not wish to offend the only world leader willing to help but neither did he want to become a satellite of the Nazi regime. The Finns fought on alone to the bitter end when the Soviets, shaken to their senses, called in hordes of reinforcements to overwhelm the gallant Finns. A peace was negotiated with Finland losing extensive territories to the Soviet Union but, unlike the Baltic states, they kept their independence and could hope to retake what they had lost some day.

Mannerheim was the national hero of Finland and when the Axis forces invaded the USSR in World War II he took his troops into battle once again. In 1942 Hitler had met with Mannerheim but it was a less than cordial visit. Mannerheim would not receive him in any way that would make it appear to be an official visit or an endorsement of the Nazi leader and the assembled company gasped when Mannerheim boldly lit up his cigar in front of the notoriously anti-smoking Nazi dictator. Finland did go to war again against the USSR in conjunction with the Axis invasion but with very limited war aims that were in any event lost when the tide turned in favor of the Allies. After World War II ended in defeat for the Axis the Republic of Finland was the only country bordering the Soviet Union to retain its independence and a great deal of the credit for that must go to Marshal Mannerheim, particularly for the sound thrashing he gave the Red Army in the Winter War, known in Moscow as the “grave of the Russian field army”.

No less a figure than Stalin said that were it not for Marshal Mannerheim Finland would have been a Soviet satellite. After the war Mannerheim briefly served as President of Finland but politics was never to his liking and viewed his time in office as he had his military service; a duty that was imposed on him rather than something he sought for himself. He was never comfortable dealing with parliament and at his age was often ill and unable to devote his full time to his presidential duties. Mannerheim died on January 27, 1951 after a lifetime of service to his country. Widely celebrated around the world he still considered the greatest and most honored national hero in Finland today.

(For more information and fascinating stories on Marshal Mannerheim there is a wealth of information at the excellent blog The Sword and the Sea.)

Monarchist Militaries: The Hackapell

The Hackapell were a famous military corps of the Thirty Years War from Finland who fought in the service of the military giant King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. The troops were Finnish light cavalry and they took their name from their the Finnish battle cry, “Cut them down!” This caused their enemies to refer to the Finns in such a way because of their zeal in battle. They were first used in the wars between Poland and Sweden in the 16th Century. Many of the most famous names in Swedish military history came to glory leading these Finnish cavalrymen into battle including the likes of Field Marshal Jacob De la Gardie in Poland and Russia and Field Marshal Gstaf Horn in Germany.

Classified as light cavalry the Hackapell were normally protected only by a helmet and a steel breastplate or leather armor. This enabled the quick movements and lightning fast charges that they were famous for. They excelled at sudden, surprise attacks, raiding enemy camps and were often used for scouting and reconnaissance work behind enemy lines. Armed with a sword and a brace of pistols they would attack at full gallop, fire their first pistol at 20 paces, their second at 5 and then use their sword once upon the enemy. They were extremely well trained and even their horses were part of this, being taught to kick, stomp and bite at the enemy while in close combat. Their horses, much like those of the east, were small but sturdy and nimble.

During their most famous period of service the Swedish royal army included three cavalry regiments from Finland and their reputation was so fierce during the 30 Years War that prayers have been found in Catholic Churches in Germany asking for divine protection from the terrible Finnish horsemen. A march written for the Hackapell became so famous that German military bands still make use of it today. The image of the Hackapell also had great symbolic importance for the newly independent Finland as an honored part of their history they could point to for modern generations to emulate.

MM Video: Royal Finland and the Winter War

Historic Day for Finland

It was on this day in 1918 that HRH Prince Frederick Charles of Hessen-Kassel renounced his short-lived title of "King of Finland". Frederick Charles was the son of the Landgrave of Hesse and Princess Anna of Prussia. His ties with royal Europe were extensive, being a cousin of Czar Nicholas II of Russia and the brother-in-law of the German Kaiser after marrying his sister Princess Margaret of Prussia in 1893. He became head of the Hessian royal family in 1884 but was to be better known, perhaps, for his stint as the nominal King of Finland at the end of the First World War. During the conflict Germany enjoyed her greatest success on the eastern front, and there was also some encouragement from the fact that much of that part of the Russian Empire was populated by those known as the "Baltic Germans". As victory over Russia looked more and more certain plans were developed to create a number of new monarchies that would be incorporated into the German Empire, such as the Baltic duchies, under their own German royals. Finland, formerly a Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire, was declared an independent kingdom with German support when the Finns broke away from Russia following the revolution. On October 9, 1918 the Finnish Parliament elected Prince Frederick Charles "King of Finland". A model for royal government was drawn up, a Finnish crown was made and Frederick Charles began to make himself familiar with what was to be his new country. Of course, the survival of all of these new monarchies depended, naturally, on German victory in the World War and when it became clear, not long after, that such a thing was impossible the dream of a German-dominated eastern Europe began to fall apart. The nominal Kingdom of Finland held on for slightly longer than the German Empire itself but on December 14, 1918 Frederick Charles abdicated his throne and Finland subsequently adopted a republican constitution.

It was also on this day that the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (boo! hiss!) was ejected from the League of Nations because of their invasion of Finland. Also, as we all know, Germany did not lose her interest in the Baltic or, to a lesser extent, Finland. A number of Baltic Germans rose to prominence in the Nazi German state and when the USSR invaded the Finns found the Germans the only ally left to them in their effort to regain what had been stolen from them by the Reds.