America's Path Not Taken

During the American War for Independence, then as now, a diversity of viewpoints were held by men on both sides. There were those of the Crown forces, adherents of the Whig party, who were quite sympathetic to the cause of the American Patriots. Such sentiments reached all the way up to the commander of the Crown forces in North America, Lt. General Sir William Howe, to HRH the Prince of Wales. Meanwhile, among the American leadership were those who espoused the eventually successful cause of independence in some sort of republican union but also those, not often remembered, who preferred the goal of greater concessions and self-government within the British Empire and under the ultimate sovereignty of the Crown. One of these men was Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania. Born in Maryland, his family moved to Pennsylvania and young Joseph studied law alongside William Franklin, illegitimate son of the famous Ben Franklin, eventually becoming a lawyer in Philadelphia. Originally a Quaker, he converted to the Church of England and married the daughter of a very wealthy and well-connected family. He became a member of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly, later Speaker of the House until 1774 and, again alongside Franklin, was most known for his efforts to have Pennsylvania become a Crown Colony rather than a Proprietary Colony of the Penn family.

As his political career demonstrated, Galloway was no republican firebrand. Indeed, he has more than once been referred to as an Anglo-American nationalist, which would certainly make him unpopular today even if nothing else were known about him. He had objections to the state of affairs in the colonies but, again, like many, his objections were not to the British Empire itself but rather with the subordinate place of the American colonies within it. He believed that the British constitutional monarchy as it was then, was the best system of government in the world and that the British, be they in the home islands or North America, were the best people in the world. He felt that the only problem was that the British subjects in America were not governed in the same way as the British subjects in Great Britain and that if this inequality could be resolved, there would be no further animosity. Indeed, he was convinced that, like himself, most Americans were loyal to the British Crown and were only being driven to disobedience by agitators in America and thoughtless policies on the part of the Parliament in London. In 1774 he had sufficient prominence and popularity to be chosen as a member of the Continental Congress (or Philadelphia Congress) which had no validity as far as the British were concerned but which would be the primary governing body of the colonies during the War for Independence.

In this capacity, Galloway proposed something quite similar to what Benjamin Franklin had previously suggested at the time of the French and Indian War known as the "Albany Plan" ("Join or Die") which was for the unification of the North American colonies within the British Empire. This proposal became known as the "Galloway Plan" or "Galloway's Plan for Union" which called for what would later be termed "Dominion status" in which the American colonies would unite together under a common colonial government but still under the sovereignty of the British Crown. Effectively, under the Galloway Plan, the American colonies would become a self-governing, autonomous partner of Great Britain within the British Empire. The colonial assemblies would appoint representatives to a parliament of their own which would be on equal terms with the parliament in London and would be presided over by a President-General appointed by the King. The American parliament would have jurisdiction over all domestic affairs, including taxation, but the parliaments in both Britain and America would each have veto power over what the other passed so that neither could impose any action detrimental to the other. The British Empire would thus become an Anglo-American partnership of a sort.

Unfortunately for Galloway, Massachusetts enacted an anti-British boycott one month before his proposal came up for a vote which was a boon for the radicals and put moderates such as himself at a clear disadvantage. Nonetheless, in October of 1774, when his plan was voted on, it was defeated only by a single vote with five in favor and six opposed. Worse still, the radicals were worried that this would display a lack of resolve on their part in dealing with the British and so it was agreed that his proposal and the very narrow vote on it, be stricken from the record. Understandably outraged by this, and seeing little hope for a compromise, Galloway left Congress and made his plan public himself the following year. He could see that there would only be two choices allowed to any American colonist; to support the King or to support total independence and, forced to choose, he would take the side of the King. His objections to British tax policy and trade regulations was not so great as his fundamental loyalty to the hereditary monarch of his nation. In late 1776, early 1777 he joined General Howe and the British army in the campaign to take Philadelphia. Once accomplished, he was made chief of police and head of civil affairs, earning praise for his administrative talents and his organization of loyalist militia forces.

The following year, when the British abandoned Philadelphia, he withdrew with them to New York and from there, with his daughter, took ship to England where he became a prominent advocate for the American loyalists and an adviser to the British government on American affairs. Still thinking that this view of American public opinion was the correct one, he asserted to the British authorities that there were many American loyalists in the colonies who could be instrumental in bringing the conflict to a successful conclusion. His advice may well have influenced the southern campaign in which the British had counted heavily on an outpouring of support and volunteers from American loyalists. In the meantime, the same year he left for England, 1778, the Pennsylvania Assembly convicted him of high treason and ordered the confiscation of all his property. His wife, Grace, had stayed behind in Philadelphia in the hope of saving their property (which was actually her property rather than his) but, of course, this made no difference and she was forcibly evicted from their home. In Britain, Galloway was also called as a witness at the trial of General Howe over his conduct of the war in America in which Galloway had few positive things to say about the general. Howe, to be fair, had little positive to say of Galloway either, accusing him of meddling in military affairs during the occupation of Philadelphia.

When the war ended in defeat for the Crown forces, Galloway settled down to a quiet life in England, devoting himself to religious study and literary pursuits until his death in 1803. His plan has mostly been forgotten today but it is notable that something similar would ultimately become quite common within the British Empire as the colonies of Canada and Australia united to become self-governing dominions in due time. Would his plan have worked? It would certainly have worked in keeping the English-speaking peoples united but as we can see across the British Commonwealth today, may well have fallen victim to the liberal laxity which has affected so many others. Yet, the retention of the American colonies within the British Empire may well have brought about a dramatic change in world history in a myriad of ways one can only speculate about today. That, we can never know, but it remains true today that the view of Galloway, and the basis of his plan, that the people of one language and one nationality should be united, are still not without supporters even while so many push against the notion, just as they did in his own time.

Monarchist Profile: Laura Secord

If you are not a native of Her Majesty’s Dominion of Canada you will probably never have heard of Laura Secord. However, for proud Canadians she is a heroine of the early history of their country; possibly even a savior of it. She was born on September 13, 1775 as Laura Ingersoll in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. Her family, of course, were loyalists (like all good Americans were in those days) and her father, Thomas Ingersoll, served in the local loyalist militia during the Revolutionary War. This, naturally, made things rather difficult for the family after the separatists won the war and established the United States. Like many loyalist families the Ingersoll clan decided to relocate to Canada in 1795 where the British Crown still reigned supreme. At that time, Canada was the “land of opportunity” and there were many like the family of Thomas Ingersoll who hoped to recover family fortune they had lost in the Revolution due to their loyalty to King and country.

 Because of all of this it should be no surprise that the family, again like most, was staunchly monarchist and steadfastly loyal to the British Crown, their loyalty having been tested in the extreme and not found wanting. In 1797 young Laura married James Secord, a member of the United Empire Loyalists, whose father had also been a loyalist in the Revolutionary War having served as an officer with Butler’s Rangers, a particularly fierce group of American Tories. James and Laura Secord settled down to a life of domestic bliss, setting up house in Queenston, Ontario (or Upper Canada as it was known then). Laura Secord lived the life of a typical wife on the northern frontier of the British Empire until trouble with the United States brought another war to her doorstep. After years of increased tensions the United States declared war on Great Britain in 1812 and immediately launched an invasion of Canada. War Hawks south of the border boasted that taking Canada would be a ‘mere matter of marching’ and believed that the people would welcome them as liberators from the “oppressive” rule of the British monarch. They couldn’t have been more wrong.

Laura Secord bravely kissed her husband goodbye as he rushed to the colors to defend Canada from the Americans. The Crown forces were grossly outnumbered but they had an advantage in the dynamic and audacious leadership of General Isaac Brock who organized his handful of redcoats, Canadian militia and local Indians to repel the American invasion. He had already thwarted one attempt before meeting the U.S. army at the battle of Queenston Heights where General Brock was mortally wounded. James Secord helped remove the body of his fallen commander and, in the process, was wounded himself. Laura risked the perils of the battlefield to search for her husband and, after finding him, caring for his wounds. The couple were almost killed by a group of American soldiers but were spared thanks to the arrival of Captain John E. Wool. A friend for life was made and that Captain Wool later became a hero in the Mexican-American War and a general in the War Between the States.

The war went on and in the spring of 1813 the U.S. Army made another effort to invade Canada. Fort George was captured and an American column moved to take control of the Niagara Peninsula which could have been of great importance. Colonel Charles Boerstler was dispatched with a sizeable force to surprise the British outpost at Beaver Dams, paving the way for future American advances. However, Laura Secord overheard the plans for this operation from a group of American officers who had quartered themselves in her home. Slipping away, Mrs. Secord braved a long and hard journey, barefoot through the wilderness to reach the British outpost and warn Lieutenant James FitzGibbon of the imminent American attack on June 22, 1813. There were over 600 regular U.S. Army soldiers against only 50 British redcoats and around 400 Indian warriors but FitzGibbon had time to prepare and the result was that the Crown forces were able to ambush the advancing Americans and totally defeat them with a minimum of losses. This hot little engagement so stung the U.S. forces at Fort George that they never made any further aggressive moves and finally abandoned the fort.

Laura Secord went back to a normal life with word of her exploits spreading by word of mouth but never being officially recognized, despite the efforts of Lt. FitzGibbon on her behalf. James Secord predeceased his wife and she fell on hard times in her old age but in 1860 the future King Edward VII, who was visiting Canada at the time, heard about the 85-year old widow who had saved Crown forces from a probable defeat and promptly donated a hundred pounds to her (a vastly greater sum at the time than it seems now). She died on October 17, 1868 and was buried next to her husband at Holy Trinity Church in the village of Chippewa (now Niagara Falls, Ontario). As the years went by her story spread through history books, articles and even plays. Today there are numerous memorials honoring Laura Secord in Canada as the heroine of the War of 1812, paying tribute to the brave woman who had risked her life in defense of her King and country.

Monarch Profile: Chief Guyasuta of the Seneca

Chief Guyasuta of the Seneca was one of the most significant American Indian leaders throughout the period of the French and Indian War, the subsequent rebellion of Pontiac and the Revolutionary War. He was born sometime around 1725 in New York but moved with his family to the Ohio area when he was still quite young. During his youth the Iroquois Confederacy was officially neutral in the colonial rivalry of Britain and France but the Senecas in the native land of Guyasuta tended to be more positive toward the French. Their effort to fortify the area to stop British encroachments sparked the French and Indian War and, many years later, an elderly George Washington recalled Guyasuta being employed as a scout on his mission to the area. Later, Guyasuta was part of the French and Indian attack on the doomed expedition of General Edward Braddock who was marching on Fort Duquesne (now Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) only to be ambushed and decimated by a small Franco-Indian force. He later went to Montreal to negotiate the official alliance between the Senecas and the French with Governor Vaudreuil.

The French and their Indian allies dominated the early part of the war, against all odds, but ultimately were overpowered and defeated by the British. In the immediate aftermath of the conflict the heavy-handed approach of the British under General Amherst toward the Indians prompted the outbreak of Pontiac’s Rebellion. Guyasuta was heavily involved and though he had not planned the actual uprising he was well known as one of the most hawkish leaders in urging his people to come together to fight the British from Detroit to the Mohawk Valley. When fighting broke out Guyasuta served with the Delaware besieging Fort Pitt (formerly the French Fort Duquesne) and a number of other engagements in the conflict. Once again though, Guyasuta was on the losing side and when it was clear that victory was no longer possible he was one of the first to accept the fact, make his peace with the British and then accept their offer to act as a mediator to try to convince his countrymen to do the same. Thanks to his intervention more than 200 British captives were released (though some would have rather remained with their “captors”). This became something Guyasuta was known for and he was employed on similar missions afterwards. He helped negotiate and end to hostilities, the release of other prisoners and acted as an intermediate for the British for quite some time.

British Crown officials came to value him greatly and the western Indians relied on him to make their case when they had grievances against the British government or British settlers. Usually these complaints involved unfair business policies by local merchants or the ruinous effect of alcohol on the native tribes. He also served as a guide and a geographical expert because of his vast knowledge of the local terrain and the various tribes of the region. One of his last diplomatic missions was an effort by the British to relocate the fearsome Mingos which Guyasuta was ultimately unable to do. This lack of success was unusual for Chief Guyasuta but his diplomatic duties were interrupted by the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. Once again he and his people were being called upon to choose sides in a conflict between the European settlers of North America.

The Continental Congress sent representatives to meet with Chief Guyasuta and other Native American leaders in 1775. They were anxious to win his sympathy and, if possible, induce him to join the war on their side. However, despite his past fights against the British, Guyasuta was too astute to buy what they were selling. He could see that the various political leaders were not united and thus their promises would likely be unreliable. He and the Six Nations tried to remain neutral and Chief Guyasuta tried to convince the Mingos to do the same, a fact which earned him a silver gorget and the rank of colonel in the Continental Army which regarded it as preferable to keep the Indians out of the war for fear they might join the British. However, it was to no avail as the continued American encroachment on Indian lands finally persuaded most of the Indians to join the war on the British side. In 1777 the decision was made by the Six Nations and Chief Guyasuta joined in the fight for his people and the Crown.

Guyasuta was among the many Indian warriors who accompanied Lt. Colonel Barry St Leger to Ft Stanwix. When a column of revolutionary militia moved in to relieve the fort the Indian warriors wiped them out at the battle of Oriskany. In retaliation, the Continental Army launched a massive raid up the Allegheny River destroying every Seneca village in their path. Guyasuta tried to defend the area but the hard-pressed British forces, already outnumbered could spare no one to help. Chief Guyasuta later served on another diplomatic mission to the Indians of the Midwest before leading a raiding campaign around modern-day Rochester, Pennsylvania. In 1781 he took up more peaceful duties again but, the following year, was back on the war path, despite his advanced age and poor health, burning Hannastown, Pennsylvania and attacking Wheeling, Virginia (now West Virginia). When the war ended in an American victory Guyasuta was forced to make his peace with the United States and there were efforts to make use of his diplomatic talents again in making peace between the U.S. and the native populations but he was unable to do much before his death in 1794.

Monarchist Profile: General Edmund Fanning

Edmund Fanning, an American loyalist who made of himself a great success in the service of the British Empire, came from a somewhat mysterious background. He was born on April 24, 1739 on Long Island, New York. Some sources say his family were Irish Protestants from Ulster, others that his parents were Captain James Fanning and Hannah Smith. In any event, he proved a bright boy and was given a good education, graduating from Yale in 1757 and going on to study law in New York. In 1761 he moved to North Carolina and there was admitted to the bar and began taking an interest in politics. Reputedly the most educated man in the colony, he was able to work closely with the Royal Governor of North Carolina William Tryon. He occupied a number of relatively minor administrative positions before coming to greater attention during the War of the Regulation. This arose out of claims that Fanning and another lawyer were guilty of extortion, a crime for which he was fined. However, the locals did not think the fine sufficient punishment and violence soon broke out which Governor Tryon was able to suppress at the head of the North Carolina militia at the battle of Great Alamance Creek on May 16, 1771.

Due to this trouble Fanning was more than happy to accompany Tyron when he was subsequently posted to New York as his private secretary. He later served as surrogate of New York City and was appointed surveyor general of the colony in 1774. In the summer of that year he was also awarded a doctorate of the civil laws by the University of Oxford. However, as rebellion brewed in New England, Fanning’s position as a Crown official, as well as his history in North Carolina, ensured that he would be singled out for particularly harsh treatment by the “Patriots”. Rebel gangs chased him from his house and he had to take shelter in New York harbor onboard HMS Asia. Sufficiently outraged he endeavored to take an active role in punishing the rebels and suppressing the revolution in America. Lt. General William Howe, British commander in North America, commissioned him colonel and he raised his own regiment of loyalist infantry known as the King’s American Regiment. Also known as the “Associated Refugees” the King’s American Regiment, under Colonel Fanning, gained quite a reputation during the war, both for their fighting prowess and their rather rough treatment of all rebels.

However, lest any think that Colonel Fanning was truly the barbarian that revolutionary propaganda made him out to be, it was he who intervened with the British forces to prevent the burning of Yale College, a fact for which, long after the war, the grateful institution granted him an honorary degree. Nor was he some soft political appointee who remained far from the fighting; in fact he was wounded twice in combat during the course of his service. The reputation with which Fanning was saddled by the American press was totally undeserved. Much of it was built on the ‘original sin’ of his conduct in North Carolina. However, most serious scholars now admit that Fanning was likely simply a scapegoat for popular discontent but this was built upon by the revolutionaries to portray Fanning as the epitome of the corrupt Crown official, exploiting the populace and then making merciless war on them once the fighting had begun.

When the war ended in defeat for the British, Colonel Edmund Fanning was forced to flee, along with other loyalists, to Nova Scotia in 1783. He became lieutenant governor and in 1785 he married and later had a son and three daughters. In 1786 he accepted what he thought was a temporary post as lieutenant governor of St John’s Island (today Prince Edward Island). His accommodations on the island were less than ideal but he persisted and in 1808 was promoted to general in the British army. He finally retired and moved to London where he died on February 28, 1818, remembered as one of the most successful loyalist governors of British North America and a leading figure in the early history of Canada.

Monarchist Profile: Robert Rogers

Outside of those familiar with American military history the name of Robert Rogers might not be very well known. He was born on November 7, 1731 in a little town in the colony of Massachusetts. His father, an Irish immigrant, later moved them to New Hampshire and founded a town which is today called Dunbarton. In 1746-7 the young Robert Rogers saw service in King George’s War as a private in the New Hampshire colonial militia, getting his first taste of military service. After this was over and he grew older he was a rather troubled young man, known for his short temper, and had some run-ins with the law but nothing ever came of it.

However, conflict was again to rescue the rebellious Robert Rogers and provide him with respectable employment in 1755 with the outbreak of the French and Indian War. Despite being vastly outmatched the French fought with skill and tenacity and won a number of early victories. This, combined with the alarming growth of British colonists in North America, prompted many native Indians to cast their lot with the French and begin raiding British settlements. That winter, while at Fort William Henry in New York, Robert Rogers formed the military unit that was to make him famous; Roger’s Rangers. Rogers built this small band into an elite irregular warfare unit that would use Indian tactics against the Indians themselves and their French allies in numerous raids and reconnaissance missions.

Wearing practical green uniforms to blend more easily with the forest, Rogers taught his men the fundamentals partisan warfare; how to look after each other, move quickly, lightly and quietly, ever alert, to fight from cover and make every shot count, to see without being seen and sweep through an area without leaving a trace behind. He was hard on his troops but a father figure as well, taking it upon himself to recruit them, equip them and pay them, which put him severely into debt. His service proved so valuable that in 1758 General James Abercromby promoted him to major. The following year Major General Jeffrey Amherst, overall British commander, sent Rogers on an incredible raid deep behind enemy lines. Rogers, with 200 of his rangers, slipped through the French lines, evaded detection and destroyed the town of Saint-Francis in Quebec; a major psychological blow to the French and Indians. After the fall of Quebec and Montreal Rogers and his men were sent west where they seized Detroit, Michigan. The French throughout the Great Lakes area surrendered and the Rangers, their work done, were disbanded.

This adventure in the northwest was taken in reaction to the uprising of a pro-French Indian alliance against the British led by the Ottawa chief Pontiac, about whom Rogers would later write a dramatic play which paid no small part in the rise to historical fame of the brave Ottawa chief. The ensuing period of peace was ruinous for Rogers who ended up in prison for debt but the adventurous man escaped, left his American homeland for England and it was there that he tried his hand at being an author. However, he was soon called back and his return coincided with the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. Some of his own men were among those militia who stood against the British in the opening skirmishes. Being a native of the colonies and not untouched by the complaints of the rebels Rogers first offered his services to General George Washington of the Continental Army. However, due to his recent stay in England, Washington took Rogers for a spy and refused him a commission. Deeply offended, Rogers washed his hands of the revolutionary movement and offered his sword to King George III and that time was gratefully accepted.

In 1776 the newly appointed Colonel Robert Rogers organized and led the elite Queen’s Rangers in New York. It was Rogers who was responsible for the capture of the famous American spy Nathan Hale. The Continental Congress declared him a traitor (always a rather hypocritical thing for revolutionaries to do) and also declared him divorced from his wife. She later married a proper rebel as Rogers was, by that time, mad, bad and dangerous to know. Rogers was retired for a time and suffering from terrible depression from all he had endured which led him to become an alcoholic. Yet, in 1779 he raised another elite fighting unit in Nova Scotia for Sir Henry Clinton; the King’s Rangers. However, his alcoholism had grown so bad that he was incapacitated and had to pass command to his brother. Captured by the Continental Navy, despite his many misfortunes he proved as difficult a prey as ever to hold and he escaped in 1782. Following the British surrender he accompanied the Crown forces back to England where he died in debt and obscurity.

However, Rogers did not remain obscure after his death in 1795. The Queen’s York Rangers of the modern Canadian army descends from the unit Rogers formed and led. There is also an artillery battalion of the Michigan National Guard that included some of Rogers’ actual descendants. Finally, during World War II, American troops greatly impressed by the skill and style of British commandos formed their own elite special forces and called themselves the U.S. Army Rangers after taking Rogers as their ancestor and inspiration. Thus, Robert Rogers, a soldier of the Crown and active loyalist became the forefather of all the modern American special forces. His famous ‘28 Rules of Ranging’ he drew up for his original unit are still read and well learned (with a few modifications) by U.S. Army Rangers to this day.

Monarchist Profile: Peggy Shippen

Peggy Shippen was the woman behind one of the most infamous names in American history. She was also a Tory girl, staunchly loyal to King and country. She was born Margaret “Peggy” Shippen on July 11, 1760 to Edward Shippen IV and Margaret Francis Shippen, a well-to-do Philadelphia family. Members of the Shippen clan had long been prominent in Pennsylvania history. One was the mayor and founder of the town of Shippensburg and Edward Shippen had served as a judge and a member of the Pennsylvania Provincial Council. As two younger brothers did not long survive little Peggy was the baby of the family and properly fussed over as such. Early in life she was noted for her outgoing nature, strong convictions and striking beauty. Her father, whom she idolized, was a staunch loyalist and ensured that even his baby girl was well informed on the politics of colonial America and was left with no doubt that those loyal to King George were the ‘good guys’. She enjoyed the typical pastimes of women in those days and even her political awareness was not so unusual as many today might think.

The outbreak of the Revolutionary War was seen as a tragedy in the Shippen house and they had to be careful to avoid drawing the attentions of the “patriot” party at a time when many Tories were persecuted for their loyalty. However, it was a cause for celebration when the British army occupied Philadelphia in 1777 and, full of confidence in the British war effort, Edward Shippen was quick to open his home to the King’s officers. High profile loyalists, Crown officials and military officers were a common feature in the parties held by the Shippen family and the lovely young Peggy was much sought after. With no shortage of gentlemen callers, Peggy was selective in who she paid attention to and soon there seemed to be a romance developing between her and a particularly dashing and well regarded officer named Major John Andre, an aide on staff of General Sir William Howe. Even though a full match did not have time to grow out of this the two remained very close from that time on. Peggy Shippen, like all local loyalists, was very sad to see the British army pull out of Philadelphia in June of 1778.

There was, then, a real danger that the Shippen family would suffer from the retaliation of the patriot forces who resumed control of the city and for a time they moved to the country. However, in spite of a law mandating the arrest of any loyalists Edward Shippen took his family back to Philadelphia when the countryside proved too dangerous with the battles raging around them. Edward Shippen tried to protect his family by being cordial with the new masters of the city, though his opinions were well known, his home remained a high society meeting place and guests included revolutionary officials and generals. It was on such an occasion that Peggy Shippen met the widowed revolutionary hero General Benedict Arnold. He had been the driving force behind the victorious Saratoga campaign and the near conquest of Canada. However, Arnold had been unappreciated by the political leadership and posted to command the garrison at Philadelphia. Arnold was immediately taken with the vivacious young Tory, known as one of the most beautiful girls in Philadelphia and despite their deep political differences the two were soon known to be an item.

Edward Shippen, and probably many other loyalists, were less than impressed when Peggy set her hat for Arnold. However, Peggy had lost none of her convictions even when she married Arnold on April 8, 1779. He was 38 and she was only 18 but despite her young age she was a force to be reckoned with and early on began working on her husband to bring him over to the loyalist position. Even before their first meeting Arnold had been rather disgusted with the leadership of the revolution and was greatly outraged by the very idea that the fledgling United States would even consider making an alliance with the Catholic absolute monarchy of France. Peggy did nothing to discourage these feelings in her husband and reminded him often how the revolutionary cause was not worthy of him. He had proven himself to be one of the most successful generals in the Continental Army and yet they did not appreciate him, others took credit for his victories and the government harassed him. She assured him that the British did not treat their best generals in such a fashion and Arnold would be better off on the other side. At first Arnold was outraged by such talk but over time Peggy wore him down.

Peggy was also still in touch with Major John Andre who was then working as the spymaster for General Sir Henry Clinton (Howe’s successor as commander of the British forces in North America). She also introduced Arnold to other friends who were all of the loyalist persuasion. Soon the home of one of the most famous revolutionary generals was a regular meeting place for King and Country loyalists. She introduced her husband to her former beau Andre and the two began corresponding. Arnold was finally won over to the Crown position and offered his services, and the fortress at West Point, to the British army; for a price of course. Since that time there have been allegations that Peggy was ultimately responsible for the change of heart of her husband, allegations which her family denied. However, few could argue that her deeply held loyalists convictions could not have influenced her husband at all. We also know that Peggy was involved herself in the exchange of letters between Arnold and Andre over his defection and the disposal of West Point.

When the intentions of Arnold were prematurely discovered Peggy Arnold showed herself to be quite an actress, putting on such a show of feigned shock, outrage and hysteria that George Washington was convinced she had nothing to do with it. Given her background it must have taken quite a performance to accomplish that even in the short-term. Arnold having escaped to the British, Peggy tried to take refuge with her family in Philadelphia but was not allowed in the city. Instead she went to the loyalist stronghold of New York City (held by the British for most of the war) where she joined her husband and where their second child was born (their first being born during their stay at West Point). Peggy remained the strong supporter of her husband that she had always been during his career as a general in the British army and it was not until December 15, 1781 that they left America for London after the surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown.

Originally Benedict and Peggy Arnold were warmly welcomed by the British and Peggy was even introduced to the Queen by Lady Amherst. However, the glamorous future Arnold had expected did not come to be and Peggy was soon on her own in London while her husband tried to get back into the shipping business in Canada. More children were born, the couple would have five in all, and in 1789 Peggy returned to America to visit her parents but even though her father remained a powerful and well-connected figure in Philadelphia she was thoroughly vilified by the public and treated with great disdain. Growing concerned for her safety, she met her husband in Canada where, even there, mobs accused them of “treason” before the couple returned to England. Even though Arnold had fathered an illegitimate child while in Canada, Peggy remained an ever-faithful and devoted wife and a defender of the legacy of her husband. When he died she was forced to sell their estate to pay his considerable debts and she spent the rest of her life rather ignored by society and living a life far from what she had dreamed of. She died at age 43 of cancer in 1804 and was buried alongside her husband at St Mary’s in London.

Monarchist Profile: Colonel Tye

The role of Black Americans in the War for Independence is not much dwelt upon and when it is the coverage usually falls into one of two categories; the glorification of those who supported the revolution (usually implying dishonestly that these were the majority) or simply categorizing them all as victims, powerless slaves who stayed out of a war of Whites as all were their oppressors. As usual, however, this sort of coverage leaves out many of the facts including the fascinating story of the Black American loyalists who certainly understood what was going on, what it was all about and where their interests were best served. They chose to stand for King and Country and probably knew better than most what all of the talk of liberty on the part of wealthy slave-owners in the colonies was really worth. At times you do hear about Black Loyalists, particularly in conjunction with Lord Dunmore but you rarely hear about Black loyalist leaders. Most assume there were none, on either side. However, there was a very famous Black leader among the loyalists and his story is worth telling. He became famous as “Colonel Tye” of the elusive Black Brigade.

His real name was Titus Cornelius and he was born sometime around 1753 into slavery in New Jersey. Not much is known about his origins, only that he was a slave, the child of slaves and so on, who had been sent over from Africa at some point. His owner was a wealthy Quaker named John Corlies of Monmouth County, New Jersey. The Quakers were not very fond of slavery and usually freed them at age 21 after teaching them to read and write. Corlies, however, was no ordinary Quaker and was a notoriously cruel master, more fond of the whip than was usual even for that time. Obviously, Titus Cornelius was less than pleased with the state he found himself in under such circumstances. His chance to remedy that situation came in November of 1775 when Lord John Murray, Fourth Earl of Dunmore and Royal Governor of Virginia decided to try to enlist the slaves of America on the side of the British Crown.

The embattled Lord Dunmore issued a proclamation directed toward all slaves and indentured servants promising them their freedom if they would rise up against their rebellious masters and join his loyalist militia in the fight to restore royal authority across the country. Today most believe that relatively few slaves answered this call, that most were complacent or even content with their lot and took in the war as bystanders. On the contrary, thousands of slaves took the opportunity to run away and at least attempt to join the British army. Obviously, this was not entirely to the benefit of the British cause as it was condemned by American slave owners as a dastardly plot to incite insurrection (which it was) and spark a race war. Many of the planter class were thus pushed into the “patriot” camp. However, Lord Dunmore got his volunteers though it was difficult for all those who wished to reach him but many did and Titus Cornelius was among them. After escaping from Corlies he had posed as a freeman and supported himself by selling his own goods as he moved down the Virginia coast toward the British. Corlies offered a reward for his capture, describing him as “about 21 years old, not very black and about six feet high”.

Lord Dunmore organized some 500 slaves, mostly from Virginia but the New Jersey native Titus among them as well, into the Royal Ethiopian Regiment. There was little to equip them with, they were armed with pikes for the most part and had sashes calling for the emancipation of slaves across their uniforms. Lord Dunmore and his small army met with disaster in December 1775 at Great Bridge but Tye (the name Titus went by in British service) may have missed out on that disaster. The first battle in which we know he took part was the battle of Monmouth in June 1778 where he captured an American captain. By that time Tye had risen to the rank of captain in the Ethiopian Regiment but also came to lead his own unit known as the Black Brigade. This was a group of roughly 25 mixed race (but predominately Black) loyalists who specialized in what would later be known as guerilla warfare. They came to great fame operating in New Jersey and that vicinity where Colonel Tye, as he was now known, was very familiar with the lay of the land and the local families.

Although he was known as Colonel Tye, he never actually held the King’s commission but this title was applied to him by his men and later others as a mark of respect and a recognition of his leadership abilities. The British paid Colonel Tye and his raiders to wreak havoc on the region, mostly around Monmouth County. Like Colonel Tye, many of his men were slaves who had escaped from this area and they often took the opportunity to exact revenge on their former masters and their families, sometimes gruesomely but few today would say without justification. Colonel Tye became feared and loathed by the American revolutionaries but, being so few and knowing the terrain so well they were extremely hard to catch. Particularly in the summer of 1779 Colonel Tye and his Black Brigade devastated the region, plundering farms and plantations, capturing rebel supplies, emancipating slaves and striking terror into the hearts of the disloyal populace. By winter they joined forces with the Queen’s Rangers (a rather elite unit also made up of American loyalists) and aided in the British defense of New York.

Colonel Tye and his men fought on as they had before into 1780 becoming widely known for tactics most would describe as ruthless, partly because they were known for assassinating several leading American “patriots” such as Joseph Murray (who himself was known for executing loyalists). In fact it was while pursuing American Captain Joshua Huddy that Colonel Tye was wounded in the wrist by a musket ball. Tetanus and gangrene later set in and some time later Colonel Tye died. Although not much remembered today, Colonel Tye was a master of irregular warfare and his raids were a great help to the British war effort. As little known as he is now he was positively infamous in his own time among his enemies. Even among the British his methods made him something of an unsavory character to some but, rest assured, it was not his tactics that cause him to be ignored by most history books today but simply the side for which he fought; King, country and his case -emancipation.

Monarchist Profile: Banastre Tarleton

Every war has its groups of famous armed men; military units which gained notoriety above others. During the American Revolutionary War one such unit was the British Legion; a crack collection of British and predominately American loyalist Dragoons and light infantry commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton. Banastre Tarleton first came to fame as a coronet in the 16th Light Dragoons commanded by the Hon. William Harcourt. Coronet Tarleton was in command of a detachment which captured the revolutionary General Charles Lee at Basking Ridge in 1776. He was the son of a merchant from Liverpool and had went to Oxford before joining the army in 1775 and volunteering for service in America. Once there he served in the 79th Foot as well as the 16th Light Dragoons before taking command of the British Legion, which he led at the battle of Monmouth. Described as having a boyish appearance with almost feminine features, Tarleton nonetheless was a talented soldier with all of the attitude one usually associates with a cavalry commander. He was flamboyant, vain, self-assured, had a devil may care attitude and was a young man who liked to joke, have fun, chase women and advance his reputation and fame.

For the war in the southern colonies, the Crown forces needed troops who could move fast and strike hard to deal with the numerous rebel guerilla groups operating in the area. One of these, and certainly one of the best, was the British Legion. Fast moving, well trained and due to the predominance of loyalists they were highly motivated, these men were ideally suited to their task. The British Legion was first formed in August, 1778, in New York. It was formed by consolidating unattached units such as the Philadelphia Light Dragoons, the Caledonian Volunteers and Kinloch's Light Dragoons. Members of the Royal American Reformees, the Bucks County Light Dragoons and the West Jersey Volunteers joined the Legion later. It was listed on the American Establishment as the 5th American Regiment in 1781. On December 25, 1782 the cavalry of the Legion was upgraded to the status of a regular regiment in the British Army. The Legion in 1779 consisted of six troops of light dragoons. Later, in 1780, four companies of light infantry were added, but these were eventually lost at the battle of Cowpens. And, in command of these crack, green-coated cavalrymen was now Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton.

British operations in the southern colonies began again with the attack on Charleston, South Carolina. The British commander-in-chief in America, Sir Henry Clinton, directed the operation as an earlier attack of his on the city had failed and he was anxious to redeem himself. In order to isolate the city he had to cut the rebel supply lines which were guarded by a cavalry brigade under General Isaac Huger at Biggins Bridge. To neutralize Huger, Clinton dispatched two of his best units, both of them loyalist, the Queen's Rangers under Major Patrick Ferguson and the British Legion. Tarleton and Ferguson charged in during the night, surprised the rebels and totally crushed them, defeating Huger and capturing large amounts of men and material.

Along with the contribution of Tarleton and his men, the British captured Charleston and its entire rebel garrison; in one stunning blow totally eliminating the revolutionary forces in the south. Clinton returned to New York and left the campaign in the hands of Lieutenant General Charles Earl Cornwallis. Dispatching troops to secure Ninety Six and Augusta, Lord Cornwallis headed toward Camden. When word came that a rebel regiment from Virginia under Colonel Abraham Buford was retreating before him, Cornwallis ordered Tarleton and his cavalry along with some men of the 17th Light Dragoons, to pursue and overtake Buford. Taking to his assignment with his usual dash and zeal, Tarleton rode north and rode hard, wearing out men and horses in single-minded pursuit of his goal. Tarleton overtook Buford at Waxhaw Creek on the border between the two Carolinas on May 29, 1780. The rebels formed up and Tarleton charged into them with such force that nothing could stop him, even having his horse shot out from under him. Clutched by panic, the rebels tried to surrender, but as Tarleton went down many of his men thought he had been killed and loosed their vengeance on the Virginians. The incident became known as the Waxhaw Massacre and cemented the image of Tarleton as chief bogey man in the eyes of the rebel army. Tarleton was nicknamed "Bloody Ban", "Ban the Butcher" and the "Butcher of the Carolinas" and from then on the revolutionaries referred to the act of taking no prisoners as "Tarleton's Quarter".

Reports from the time are contradictory but it is quite easy to see that Tarleton has been treated quite unfairly on this issue, an issue blown entirely out of proportion in order to portray him as being cruel and bloodthirsty. Unfortunately, many history books, especially in the US, play along and make no mention of the fact that Tarleton offered Buford the chance to surrender that morning and had been refused. Most do not mention that most of the rebel casualties came as a result of the battle and the incompetence of their own commander or of the fact that many of the rebel troops survived even though it would have been well within the power of Tarleton to have pursued them and wiped them out completely. There is simply no evidence to suggest anything malicious in the conduct of Tarleton at Waxhaws and no evidence that there was anything like an actual massacre. At most, there was some killing in the confused minutes after Tarleton was unhorsed and his men were not under his direction. Nonetheless, the rebel propaganda seems to have worked fantastically as Colonel Tarleton still to this day is forced to bear a ruthless reputation because of the incident he certainly does not deserve.

In the larger campaign though, outside of the propaganda war, things continued to go bad for the revolutionaries. In August, Lord Cornwallis met the rebel General Horatio Gates in battle at Camden. The rebel militia scattered when hit by the British attack but the Maryland and Delaware regulars under the Bavarian Baron DeKalb put up stiffer resistance, holding for about an hour before Tarleton and his cavalry slipped around and attacked them from the rear. Tarleton finished them off and the battle of Camden went down in history as perhaps the most complete victory ever by Crown forces during the war. General Gates himself abandoned his army and fled with his men retreating in a panic soon dubbed "the Camden races". Rebel troops under General Thomas Sumter who had planned to join Gates were also nearby and Tarleton and his men were sent racing after them, finally catching them at Rocky Mountain Ferry. Once again, Tarleton totally defeated the rebels, forcing Sumter to flee and capturing a great deal of men, supplies, weapons and freeing a hundred British prisoners.

After the victory at Camden the British advance continued north, though at a slow pace due to widespread illness. In fact, when the British Legion next saw action Tarleton was down with fever and the troops were led by Major George Hanger, a fun-loving party boy and companion in the escapades of the Prince of Wales. The reconnaissance into Charlotte without Tarleton was less than successful though Cornwallis easily occupied the town when he arrived with his main body. The British had more bad luck when the heroic Major Patrick Ferguson and his loyalists were wiped out at King's Mountain on October 6, 1780. After this battle a real massacre ensued when the rebels slaughtered loyalists who had surrendered as well as those who were wounded. They even mutilated the dead body of Major Ferguson and as the rebels carried out their brutality they shouted, "Tarleton's Quarter!" In the face of this rampage and with disease still running rampant, Cornwallis fell back to Winnsboro for the winter. In November, Tarleton fought a bloody battle at Blacktock's Plantation but throughout the south rebel guerillas under Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion plagued the loyalist militia and terrorized loyalist citizens.

In January of 1781 Lord Cornwallis resumed his march north from Winnsboro. Upon learning that the rebel army had split in two, Cornwallis hoped to catch and destroy the column under General Daniel Morgan. In command of the troops sent after Morgan was Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton. The two forces met on January 17, 1781 at Hannah's Cowpens. Morgan placed his men with their backs to the Broad River so that retreat would not be an option. The Crown forces were exhausted, but as was his style, Tarleton decided on an immediate attack at which he had always been successful. As Tarleton attacked, the rebel militia fired two volleys and then fell back as Morgan had planned. Thinking that, as usual, the rebels had broken and retreated, Tarleton sent in the 17th Light Dragoons in pursuit, but they were intercepted by the cavalry of Colonel William Washington who, with twice as many men, charged up from behind a hill and smashed the British dragoons. The rebel militia rallied and the British advance began to slow. Seeing the danger, Colonel Tarleton sent his cavalry reserve charging in and though the rebel line began to waver under the onslaught the Crown forces were rapidly losing cohesion. When Morgan rallied his men and loosed another volley into the British ranks their attack fell apart. As the Crown forces began to surrender and retreat Tarleton led a last minute Hail Mary charge of his own, but it was to no avail. Tarleton had been defeated at the battle of Cowpens, losing a hundred men killed or wounded and 800 taken prisoner.

Cowpens shook the famous reputation of Tarleton and encouraged more colonials in the south to join the rebels. Cornwallis was deeply disturbed by the loss, complaining that with the loss of Tarleton's cavalry he had lost his eyes and ears. Still, he continued on, harassed every step of the way by Greene and Morgan. When he stopped and the two sides met for battle at Guilford Court House on March 15, 1781 the Crown forces numbered less than 2,000 men compared to 4,500 rebel troops under General Greene.

Lord Cornwallis arranged his men with Major General Alexander Leslie on the right and Brigadier General Charles O'Hara on the left with Colonel Tarleton in reserve. After exchanging artillery fire, the British marched forward against three lines of rebel troops. The rebel front line of North Carolina militia broke and retreated fairly quickly. The second line of Virginia militia held longer but also finally gave way. The outnumbered British had broken through two lines of rebel defense, but the third line of Maryland and Virginia regulars proved too much. The British were halted and driven back by a bayonet charge. Cornwallis sent in his reserves and the rebel cavalry charged in as well with both sides locking in fierce close combat. When the redcoats began to waver, Cornwallis ordered his artillery to fire into the mass of men, killing friend and foe alike but keeping the rebels at bay. Cornwallis reformed his men and Colonel Tarleton charged in, crushing the rebel flanks. When the British began moving in again the rebels finally gave it up and retreated, leaving their artillery and ammunition behind. It was yet another victory for the Crown forces, but one that had been very costly with 143 men killed and 389 wounded. The small British army was now smaller and had to secure a port to be supported and re-supplied.

To do this, Cornwallis moved into Virginia and he sent Colonel Tarleton on a raid to Charlottesville, the seat of the Virginia Assembly. On June 4, Tarleton entered the city and came within mere minutes of capturing Thomas Jefferson himself. Skirmishes continued as Cornwallis and his commander, Sir Henry Clinton, clashed over the best course of action. Considering Portsmouth as a possible base, Cornwallis moved in, meeting resistance from rebel troops under the Marquis de Lafayette and Brigadier General Anthony Wayne. At Green Spring Farm Cornwallis set a trap for the rebels and Colonel Tarleton helped lure Wayne in with his Legion cavalry. When the British sprung their trap the force under Wayne was crushed. After the rebels had retreated, Colonel Tarleton located their main force under Lafayette which had been joined by additional troops under Baron von Steuben. Tarleton wanted to charge in and finish them off, but Cornwallis would not allow it, feeling that his troops were too tired and depleted to risk another engagement.

As Cornwallis moved to Suffolk, Tarleton rode off on another raid to intercept supplies at New London meant for General Nathaniel Greene, however, by the time he arrived the supplies had already been moved out. From Portsmouth Cornwallis began moving his army to Yorktown. At the same time, rebel and French forces under General George Washington were moving south, hoping that the French navy could blockade Cornwallis from the sea and allow Washington to overwhelm him. Throughout the rest of the summer and into autumn the French and Continental armies concentrated their men in Virginia. On March 8, 1781 the French navy fought the first battle of the Capes and managed to snatch defeat from the jaws of victory. In September, however, in the second battle of the Capes, the French fleet returned and pushed the Royal Navy away from aiding Cornwallis and allowing French ships to land. Cornwallis was now isolated though ideas were considered for breaking through to him.

As Cornwallis entrenched himself at Yorktown and the French and rebels closed in, the siege was starting off what would be the beginning of the end of the American Revolution. Siege warfare has no place for cavalry, but Colonel Tarleton was not done quite yet. On October 3, Tarleton led his Legion cavalry across to the Gloucester area along with some men from the Queen's Rangers and the 17th Foot. He quickly spotted French marines, rebel militia and the French legion of Duc d'Lauzun. Tarleton fought a delaying action to buy time for the foraging wagons to escape. He charged the French hussars and was unhorsed and would have been captured if some of his fast acting British troops had not saved him. The infantry repelled Lauzun, but when Tarleton followed up with a counterattack, French infantry stopped him as well. Tarleton continued the fight until additional French and rebel troops appeared on his right flank and forced him to withdraw. Nonetheless, he had saved the supplies Cornwallis desperately needed and bought them the time to escape. These were the last additional provisions the Crown forces would receive and they would be sorely needed.

With that action, the role of Tarleton in North America had come to an end. On October 19, 1781 the Crown forces formally surrendered and laid down their arms after a well fought siege. Clinton had been in the process of sending help, but turned back when word came that Cornwallis had surrendered. Tarleton was included in this and paroled back to England. In 1790 he became a member of Parliament for Liverpool and was active in opposing the abolitionist movement in Great Britain. In 1794 he was promoted to the rank of major general and in 1798 married an illegitimate daughter of the Duke of Ancaster, though the two never had any children. He wrote about his service in America and in 1812, also his last year in Parliament, he was promoted to full general and held commands in England and Ireland. He was made a baronet in 1815 and died in 1833 at Leintwardine.

Today, Banastre Tarleton continues to endure a reputation he does not deserve. In reality he certainly had plenty of traits for which most people today would criticize him. He was vain, ambitious and opposed the abolition of slavery in the British Empire. However, no one condemns him for any of this, but rather they continue to focus on unfair and unfounded accusations of cruelty. Still to this day he is remembered as "Tarleton the Butcher" and "Bloody Ban" as supposedly serious scholars simply repeat back tired pieces of propaganda from his enemies. The facts all fail to support such accusations, though they continue to be leveled by those eager to paint the British and loyalists as devils and the American revolutionaries as saints. The actual record shows Colonel Tarleton to be no monster, but rather a driven, courageous and skilled officer, probably the best cavalry commander of the war in fact. His personality may have annoyed some of his superiors, but his men adored him and his record of success speaks for itself as to his ability. Perhaps one day the story of the American Revolution will be told without partiality and the truth about Banastre Tarleton will finally become well known.

The Foundations of Canada

Today is Victoria Day in Her Britannic Majesty's Dominion of Canada, celebrated in honor of the birthday of Queen Victoria and subsequently the official day of celebration for the Canadian monarch and a day when the Royal Union Flag (still an official Canadian national flag) is flown from official buildings. It also happens to mark the anniversary of the arrival of the first loyalists from the 13 British American colonies which formed the United States. It was 1783 when this first group arrived, on this day, in New Brunswick. I am sure there are those traitors who object to the celebration of Victoria Day for the simple reason that it honors the Queen-Empress who is such a symbol of the glory days of the British Empire. However, these creatures should remember that a considerable portion of the credit for the foundation of Canada goes to those American loyalists who fled to Canada because they wished to remain under the benevolent reign of HM King George III and wanted nothing to do with the republican regime that had come to power in their former homeland. They had the choice to stay in a republic or move to a monarchy and they chose to remain loyal and go where the monarch still reigned. Canadian republicans who so detest the United States should keep in mind this part of the founding of their country and remember that remaining loyal to King and Country was the first and most paramount aspect that distinguished them from the United States. If these people had their way the Dominion of Canada would basically be betraying their entire history in order to become the United States of Northern North America. They might as well petition to become the 51st state.